In the second half of the 18th century, France found itself in the grip of a multifaceted financial crisis caused by involvement in the American Civil War, extravagant court lifestyles, and ambitious private projects of Louis XVI. The national debt was increasing uncontrollably. To strengthen state finances, two measures were necessary: to limit the extravagant expenses of the court and to introduce a new tax policy that would evenly distribute the burden among all social classes, including the previously privileged nobility and clergy.
The first major shock in a series of events occurred in the spring of 1781 when Finance Minister Necker published an extensive 116-page brochure revealing enormous sums allocated to maintaining the luxurious lifestyle of the courtiers. In 1782, the United States annulled agreements made with France in 1778, further burdening the already weakened French budget. The summer of 1785 brought the outbreak of the notorious diamond necklace affair, further fueling public hatred towards the queen.
In the pursuit of funds for the restoration of Versailles, Louis XVI ordered the abolition of 400 unnecessary honorary positions, the cessation of court excursions to Compiegne and Fontainebleau, and the cancellation of theatrical performances at the Opera and Orangerie in 1780. In 1786, the new Finance Minister Calonne proposed extensive reforms aiming to stop the abuses and privileges of the nobility and clergy and establish equality in the taxation of all French citizens, regardless of their social class. The nobility rejected the minister’s proposal, explaining that such radical reforms could only be approved by the Estates-General. This assembly of three estates had not been convened for 175 years. Louis XVI withdrew, fearing that the summoning of the Estates-General could undermine his authority. He dismissed Calonne and presented the reforms to the parliament. The parliament, consisting of 13 judicial courts responsible for confirming royal decrees before they took effect, also disagreed with the reforms and demanded the summoning of the Estates-General.
Meanwhile, the burden on the farmers continued to increase. Farmers were the sole contributors to direct taxes, engaged in physical labor, and obligated to serve in the militia. Each year, they paid taxes in cash and produce, all while grappling with rising taxes, soaring prices, and a growing population. France was inundated with Enlightenment ideas calling for freedom and equality.
The combination of poor harvests and harsh winters in the last two years before the revolution led to a shortage of food and firewood, fueling discontent among rural masses who began migrating to cities. The nobility persistently resisted all reforms, and their clandestine intrigues triggered economic instability, ultimately leading to the bankruptcy of the state.
In May 1789, the king was forced to convene the Estates-General. The election announcement for representatives read: “We need the cooperation of our loyal citizens to overcome economic challenges and restore order in the state government, ensuring the happiness and prosperity of our citizens.”
Disagreements immediately arose between the Third Estate, the nobility, and the clergy. On June 4, 1789, the king’s son, Louis Joseph, passed away at the age of 7, being the first male heir and thus the first successor to the king. The court decided on a two-month mourning period. Louis XVI wanted to impose mourning on the Estates-General, but they rejected his command. Encountering closed doors at the parliament, they gathered on the field, pledging not to disband until France had a constitution.
The king perceived the opposition of the deputies as a rebellion, prompting him to call in the military. Fear of an attack and the dismissal of the popular Finance Minister Necker on July 13, who had the people’s favor, triggered the assault on the Bastille on July 14, 1789, marking the beginning of the French Revolution.