While revolutionaries claimed the event was spontaneous, there were prior calls for the march to force the king to accept the Assembly’s proposals. False news in newspapers, fostering intolerance towards the king, also played a role – it was falsely reported that the king hosted a Flemish regiment in the palace, which came to his aid to suppress the unrest, and that the queen engaged in nightly orgies with the entire regiment.

The king met the demonstrators and, after a brief meeting, promised to distribute food from the royal stores. Some women left, but most believed that, under the influence of the queen, the king would not keep his promises, so they remained near Versailles. The king announced he would accept the August decrees and the Declaration of the Rights of Man, thinking it would appease the crowd. The National Guard, under the command of LaFayette, took no action to defend the palace in case of an attack.

The next morning, protesters discovered that the palace gates were not secured. Count Saint Priest described the events of the following day: “A horde of robbers jumped over the iron gates and rushed towards the palace courtyard. They walked under my windows without seeing me. I stayed hidden for a few more minutes and saw them return, dragging royal guard soldiers behind them to kill them. Fortunately, LaFayette, who had finally awakened, intervened with grenadiers and managed to save some unfortunate ones. Yet the most ruthless among those criminals beheaded two guards standing at the entrance, and some women gathered around the corpses to wash their hands in blood. The worst was yet to come. Dozens of scoundrels quickly climbed the staircase leading to Marie Antoinette’s rooms. A young cadet, beaten to blood, still managed to inform the maids to wake the queen and dragged her into a secret passage to the left of the bed. The king had only enough time to put on a gown and hurried through another secret passage into the toilet rooms. The rulers managed to meet only after LaFayette restored peace by expelling the mob from the palace.”

The court suspected that the march was politically motivated and believed that it was secretly incited by the king’s cousin, the Duke of Orleans, who openly supported the abolition of absolute monarchy in favor of a constitutional monarchy.

Madame de Tourzel described the event as follows: “I had a strange feeling while watching the Parisian women filling the Cour de Marble. Many of them were too well-dressed to be prostitutes. This led me to think that they were simple caretakers, paid to perform that comedy.”

King Louis XVI, surprised by the intensity of the march and the fervor of the protesters, yielded to the crowd’s demands. After more than a century, the royal family had to move to Paris, where they would be under the watchful eyes of the people. The crowd, in the meantime, had grown to around sixty thousand people.

The arrival of the royal procession in Paris was described by Count Chateaubriand: “I saw captured cannons on which sat hags, thieves, and prostitutes chatting intermittently, their gestures were even more bold. In the middle of the crowd walked the royal guard, who had to hand over horses, hats, and sabers to the treacherous National Guard. Behind them were the ragged harlots, butchers with bloody aprons and knives in their hands, close to the door of the royal carriage. The thugs climbed onto the carriages in the procession; others sat on the coachmen’s seats. The sound of knife blows and pistols and shouts were heard: ‘Here are the baker, the baker’s wife, and the assistant!’ On the pikes were impaled two severed heads, their hair curled and powdered by a Sevres hairdresser.”

The event was seen as a victory for revolutionary forces, as the once unbreakable monarchy was forced to kneel before the will of the people.

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The first major shock in a series of events occurred in the spring of 1781 when Finance Minister Necker published an extensive 116-page brochure revealing enormous sums allocated to maintaining the luxurious lifestyle of the courtiers. In 1782, the United States annulled agreements made with France in 1778, further burdening the already weakened French budget. The summer of 1785 brought the outbreak of the notorious diamond necklace affair, further fueling public hatred towards the queen.

In the pursuit of funds for the restoration of Versailles, Louis XVI ordered the abolition of 400 unnecessary honorary positions, the cessation of court excursions to Compiegne and Fontainebleau, and the cancellation of theatrical performances at the Opera and Orangerie in 1780. In 1786, the new Finance Minister Calonne proposed extensive reforms aiming to stop the abuses and privileges of the nobility and clergy and establish equality in the taxation of all French citizens, regardless of their social class. The nobility rejected the minister’s proposal, explaining that such radical reforms could only be approved by the Estates-General. This assembly of three estates had not been convened for 175 years. Louis XVI withdrew, fearing that the summoning of the Estates-General could undermine his authority. He dismissed Calonne and presented the reforms to the parliament. The parliament, consisting of 13 judicial courts responsible for confirming royal decrees before they took effect, also disagreed with the reforms and demanded the summoning of the Estates-General.

Meanwhile, the burden on the farmers continued to increase. Farmers were the sole contributors to direct taxes, engaged in physical labor, and obligated to serve in the militia. Each year, they paid taxes in cash and produce, all while grappling with rising taxes, soaring prices, and a growing population. France was inundated with Enlightenment ideas calling for freedom and equality.

The combination of poor harvests and harsh winters in the last two years before the revolution led to a shortage of food and firewood, fueling discontent among rural masses who began migrating to cities. The nobility persistently resisted all reforms, and their clandestine intrigues triggered economic instability, ultimately leading to the bankruptcy of the state.

In May 1789, the king was forced to convene the Estates-General. The election announcement for representatives read: “We need the cooperation of our loyal citizens to overcome economic challenges and restore order in the state government, ensuring the happiness and prosperity of our citizens.”

Disagreements immediately arose between the Third Estate, the nobility, and the clergy. On June 4, 1789, the king’s son, Louis Joseph, passed away at the age of 7, being the first male heir and thus the first successor to the king. The court decided on a two-month mourning period. Louis XVI wanted to impose mourning on the Estates-General, but they rejected his command. Encountering closed doors at the parliament, they gathered on the field, pledging not to disband until France had a constitution.

The king perceived the opposition of the deputies as a rebellion, prompting him to call in the military. Fear of an attack and the dismissal of the popular Finance Minister Necker on July 13, who had the people’s favor, triggered the assault on the Bastille on July 14, 1789, marking the beginning of the French Revolution.

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Before the French Revolution, there were approximately 350,000 nobles in France, making up about 1.5% of the population. However, the nobility was not a uniform group in terms of wealth.

The court nobility, which consisted of about 40,000 nobles who resided in Versailles, lived extravagant lives that were dictated by societal rules. They employed numerous servants, wore lavish clothing, and owned expensive carriages and jewelry. They also spent lavishly on feasts, parties, celebrations, dances, hunts, games of chance, and courtship. Their expenses were so high that they often could not cover them with the income from their extensive rural estates. To supplement their income, they received regular allowances from the state treasury (pensions) for court services and gifts from the king. The allowances that the king granted to the court nobility were substantial. For example, the king allocated 14 million liber of state money to his brother to settle debts. The queen paid 1 million liber of state money to a court lady to settle a debt incurred from card games.

Because the court nobility was entirely dependent on the king or state allowances for their income, they resisted the idea of reducing payments from the state treasury or new financial burdens.

The rural nobility, on the other hand, lived more modestly. Nobles were not allowed to engage in crafts, trade, or other bourgeois professions without losing their noble title. Their source of income was limited to feudal dues from peasants. As the value of money declined, nobles lived in poverty and collected dues more harshly. Peasants called them “hoberau,” which means a small falcon or the smallest bird of prey.

Despite their modest lifestyle, rural nobles still enjoyed certain privileges that distinguished them from the wealthiest merchants. These privileges included the right to bear arms, the right to a separate bench in church, the right to a separate cell in arrest, the right to be beheaded rather than hanged, the right to judicial rights on their estates, the right to use pastures, exclusive rights to hunting, fishing, and pigeon breeding, exemption from paying certain taxes and tolls, and exemption from quartering royal soldiers in their homes.

Rural nobles also feared new taxes and the abolition of their privileges.

In the mid-18th century, some nobles began to increasingly collaborate with wealthy merchants and invest money in the emerging industry. Therefore, some nobles sided with the revolutionary cause at the beginning of the revolution.

In the decade preceding the French Revolution, a series of pivotal events unfolded in France, ultimately paving the way for revolutionary upheaval and the downfall of aristocracy.

The country was on the edge of bankruptcy due to its support for the American War of Independence (1775-83).

In an effort to gain the trust of foreign investors, Finance Minister Necker published a financial report on the state budget (1781), a practice unheard of in an absolute monarchy where financial matters were always kept secret. The report also revealed the extravagant spending of the nobility.

Minister Calonne’s (1783-87) attempts to curb public spending and tax privileged classes faced fierce opposition from the aristocracy.

The notorious diamond necklace affair (1784-85), involving Queen Marie Antoinette, further fueled public discontent. Despite later revelations of fraud, the incident left an indelible mark on Marie Antoinette’s reputation, transforming public sentiment from disapproval to almost outright animosity.

It is crucial to acknowledge that the nobility played pivotal roles in politics, the military, and the economy, upholding the integrity of the entire system. However, at the dawn of the revolution, the majority of nobles fled the country, taking their wealth with them. Simultaneously, the absence of generals left the army in disarray. This dual blow contributed to the collapse of the system, plunging the state into a turbulent era.

Do you think the nobility was aware of their extravagant lifestyle, or were they so accustomed to it from a young age that they didn’t notice? Why did they believe they had exclusive ownership, and despite the abundance of basic goods, were they unwilling to share with others? Were they genuinely conscious of the hardships faced by the peasants?

What would you do if you were paying taxes, yet had no say in how your hard-earned money was being spent? How would you feel if, despite working tirelessly every day, you struggled to provide for yourself and your family, while others, funded by your contributions, lived in extravagant luxury? Additionally, do you consider the rebellion of the French people justified as the only way to bring about necessary changes?

Try to see things from a higher perspective. Try not to judge.

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France found itself at the epicenter of the Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802), confronting external threats from monarchies seeking to quash revolutionary ideals. The military struggle placed immense strain on the Republic, both economically and politically. The war effort, the flight of the aristocracy (the core of the economy), and economic mismanagement resulted in financial difficulties. Ordinary citizens grappled with inflation, shortages of essential goods, and economic hardships, further fueling social tensions.

The execution of Louis XVI in 1793 left a void in leadership, contributing to political and social disarray. The absence of a stable government intensified the challenges faced by the Republic. Frequent changes in leadership and the Reign of Terror (1793-1794) brought internal dissent and opposition, with revolutionary tribunals executing perceived enemies. This political instability and social unrest created a tumultuous environment. Internal rivalries between revolutionary groups, such as the Girondins and the Jacobins, fueled factionalism and radicalization, complicating the quest for a cohesive and stable government.

Efforts to secularize society led to conflicts with the Catholic Church. The dechristianization campaign, aimed at minimizing religious influence, contributed to tensions and resistance in various regions.

Amidst the turmoil, the Republic saw an erosion of its foundational ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. The pursuit of stability sometimes compromised these principles, leading to disillusionment among some revolutionaries.

In 1799, against this backdrop of challenges, Napoleon Bonaparte orchestrated the coup d’état of 18 Brumaire, marking the end of the Republic and paving the way for the rise of the Consulate.

Just two weeks after the coup that brought him to power, he established tax collection offices in every province, laying the groundwork for a more organized fiscal system. Within a mere two months, Napoleon took a bold step by founding the French Bank, a cornerstone for stabilizing the nation’s economy. Over the course of a year, he enacted sweeping reforms, revamping the customs administration, introducing a comprehensive land registry, and judiciously utilizing state properties for the collective benefit through state rent—a stark departure from the careless practices of his predecessors.

Under Napoleon’s leadership, the state began to systematically pay off debts and interest. Trade chambers were revitalized, the stock exchange was organized, and measures were put in place to curb rampant speculation. Napoleon jumpstarted the industry, which had seen an approximately half decline in production in the past ten years.

Simultaneously, he established a police force to curb crime and violence that had marred the preceding years.

None of the preceding governments managed to establish a unified legal framework for the entire country within an eleven-year period. However, under Napoleon’s leadership, this challenging objective underwent a swift transformation, resulting in a comprehensive draft in just four months. Despite initially being rejected by the State Council, this journey concluded with the adoption of the Civil Code in 1804.

In 1801, Napoleon signed the Concordat with the Catholic Church, seeking to reconcile with the Catholic Church after years of conflict. The agreement reestablished relations between the French government and the Church but placed the Church under state control.

Napoleon successfully ended wars with other countries: in 1801 with the Austrian and Russian Empires and in 1802 with the United Kingdom.

Napoleon’s post-revolutionary era was characterized by pragmatic and effective governance. From fiscal responsibility to economic revitalization, his leadership marked a turning point for France, steering it away from the turbulence of the revolution towards a future of stability and growth.

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The transition from feudalism to the implementation of the Napoleonic Code (Code Civil) brought significant changes in the legal and social status of peasants in France.

Legal Equality:

Feudalism: In the feudal system, peasants were subject to the arbitrary authority of local lords, and their legal rights were often determined by customary laws and the will of the nobility.

Code Civil: The Napoleonic Code introduced the principle of legal equality. It established a uniform legal system that applied equally to all citizens, including peasants. The code emphasized individual rights and provided a more standardized and just legal framework.

Land Ownership:

Feudalism: Peasants in the feudal system typically did not own the land they cultivated. Land was often held by the nobility, and peasants worked the land in exchange for protection and a share of the produce.

Code Civil: The Napoleonic Code brought about changes in land ownership. It recognized and protected private property rights, allowing peasants to own the land they cultivated. This shift marked a departure from the feudal practice of land tenure.

Abolition of Feudal Obligations:

Feudalism: Peasants had various obligations to their lords, including labor services, rents, and other feudal dues. These obligations were burdensome and often exploitative.

Code Civil: The Napoleonic Code abolished many of the feudal obligations. It emphasized contractual freedom and the right to engage in voluntary agreements. This change liberated peasants from some of the traditional burdens associated with feudalism.

Citizenship and Rights:

Feudalism: Peasants were often relegated to a lower social status and had limited political rights.

Code Civil: The Napoleonic Code granted equal citizenship to all Frenchmen, providing peasants with legal recognition and the right to participate in civic life. However, it’s important to note that while the code brought about legal equality, social and economic disparities persisted.

Uniform Legal System:

Feudalism: Legal systems varied across regions and were often influenced by local customs and feudal traditions.

Code Civil: The Napoleonic Code created a unified legal system applicable throughout France. This standardization contributed to legal clarity and consistency.

Key features of the Napoleonic Code include:

Clarity and Simplicity: The code aimed to provide a clear and accessible set of laws, replacing the complex and often contradictory legal system that existed in France before its enactment.

Equality before the Law: The code emphasized the principle of equality before the law, treating all citizens as equals and providing a foundation for the protection of individual rights.

Property Rights: It established a strong system of property rights and protection, emphasizing the right to private property.

Family Law: The code addressed family law matters, including marriage, inheritance, and parental rights. It introduced the concept of legal equality within the family.

Legal Certainty: The Napoleonic Code aimed to bring legal certainty and predictability to the French legal system, contributing to the development of a more unified and systematic legal framework.

The Napoleonic Code had a lasting impact not only in France but also in many countries that adopted its principles during and after the 19th century. It influenced the legal systems of a significant number of European and Latin American nations, as well as parts of Africa and Asia.

As the Napoleonic Code sought to reshape the legal landscape, opposition from the aristocracy, both in France and across European monarchies, intensified. They resisted conceding rights to the people, striving to preserve the established order of feudalism. The conflict that ensued resulted in wars and a significant loss of life. In contemplating the choices faced by individuals of that era, whether aristocrats defending tradition or peasants yearning for newfound rights, one is compelled to consider the complex tapestry of societal transformation and individual agency in the face of monumental change.

What would you do if you were an aristocrat or a peasant during that tumultuous time?

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The king exercised control over the judicial system, being the source of all legislation (Lex Rex). His influence extended to making decisions at his discretion and intervening in legal proceedings. With the authority to issue pardons and letters of arrest for imprisonment in state prisons without trial, the king could delegate the pronouncement of judgments to the courts.

Maintaining authority over administration, the king bestowed offices and titles as he saw fit. He personally collected taxes and held sole discretion over the utilization of the accumulated funds.

Additionally, the king assumed the role of the supreme commander of the army, directing foreign policy and diplomacy.

When it came to taxation, the king had the liberty to impose taxes on subjects at his discretion, and there were no uniform tax structures for all residents or the entire country.

As the king’s position was inherited, kings were frequently ill-suited for their roles, and their upbringing in wealth and abundance often kept them distant from the struggles of the common people.

During the late 18th century, especially as Enlightenment ideas gained prominence, there was increasing skepticism about absolute monarchy and divine right. The French Revolution, with its emphasis on liberty, equality, and secularism, challenged the traditional authority of the monarchy and the intertwining of religious and political power.

It’s crucial to emphasize that this shift in perception—from viewing the king as a divine deputy to recognizing him as a common man—did not happen abruptly or overnight. At the beginning of the revolution, the majority of the people still held onto the notion of the divine right of kings, as it was the belief instilled in them from a young age. For example, when the issue of determining the punishment for a king Louis XVI betraying a country arose, the government refrained from involving the people, fearing potential disagreement. Furthermore, the government itself was divided, with 387 votes in favor of the king’s death and 334 votes against. People’s reactions to the king’s execution varied, ranging from approval to perceiving it as an act of brutality. They lacked a figurehead who could effectively represent their leadership.

If you were a king with several hundred years of heritage, holding command over everything, how would you respond if the people insisted on participating in governance?

If you were a commoner, how do you think you would react to the king’s execution?

If you were a commoner, how would you respond if, after ten years of tumultuous times marked by economic, social, political, and war turbulence, a man were to emerge promising an end to this upheaval?

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